I have been impressed with the many bulletin board comments on the Robin Hills murders. As a result of all of your interest, I am now gathering and reviewing information relative to that matter so that I can more intelligently evaluate and discuss the forensic issues soon at this site.

Have you been involved in cases where innocent people have been convicted of murder?

Unfortunately, yes: Where the cause of death was from natural causes erroneously diagnosed as homicide; where development of livor mortis was mistaken for proof of homicidal suffocation; where facial injuries from a fall after a heart attack were incorrectly attributed to a homicidal assault; where a babysitter was convicted of fatally harming a child when microscopic examination of the tissues showed that the injuries were inflicted before the babysitter arrived; where mistakes were made in DNA interpretation; where exculpatory trace evidence had not been examined in the crime laboratory; where confessions were false; where prosecutor's were overzealous in the pursuit of "winning"; where defense attorneys were incompetent; where forensic scientists become advocates for whomever they are working rather than acting as independent advocates for justice.

What education is required to work in the field of forensic science? Where can I learn more about training?

To become a forensic pathologist requires four years of college, four years of medical school, four years of postgraduate general pathology residency training and at least one year of specific forensic pathology training. Other forensic sciences have different training requirements but all require a college degree followed by some specialized training or a Masters or other degree.

What happens to the body organs and blood after the autopsy is completed?

The dissected organs are returned to the body, usually in a plastic bag, except for small samples of tissues saved for microscopic examination and blood and other fluids for toxicologic, DNA or other studies that might be necessary. The body is then released to the funeral parlor where remaining blood is removed during the embalming process to permit better preservation of the remains.

Can I view an autopsy?

Autopsies are medical procedures performed in hospitals with the consent of the family, or by determination of the Medical Examiner's Office. Only properly authorized persons can attend - such as police, attorneys, medical students. Autopsies are not available for viewing by the general public.

How long after a person dies does the body start to decompose?

Immediately after we die decomposition changes begin that manifest themselves at different times: the body is noted to stiffen - rigor mortis - within two hours because waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea produced by muscle cells are not removed by the blood stream; the red blood cells settle downward causing the maroon color of death - livor mortis - which is apparent within a few hours; the body temperature falls - algor mortis (not Al Gore mortis) - because oxygen cannot get to body cells; and bacteria move from the gastrointestinal track throughout the body because our immune system is no longer functioning, causing putrefaction and bloating of our tissues which proceeds with increasing rapidity the higher the surrounding temperature. Such decomposition can be very prominent within 24 hours on a hot summer's day.

Can you be infected by a dead body?

The dead body does not transmit disease but after a time, it can attract vermin, mosquitoes, etc., that do. Some infectious diseases can be acquired from the body through a break in the handler's skin from old hand sores, or through a scalpel cut during an autopsy or by breathing in bacteria - most notably tuberculosis and hepatitis. Simple precautions such as wearing gloves and a face mask and being careful not to cut oneself will avoid such transmission. As a resident pathologist at Bellevue Hospital I did cut myself and developed a severe streptococcal infection of my hand that would have been fatal before the development of antibiotics.

Does swelling of the brain due to trauma indicate that the victim was alive after the blow?

Yes. The brain reacts to injury by swelling, whether the injury is a blow to the head or the cutting off of oxygen to the brain, asphyxia, which can be caused by strangulation, drowning, a choke hold, or improper anesthesia during an operation. Swelling stops at the time of death when there is no further pumping of blood by the heart.

Would it be possible to retrieve the DNA sequence of the Zodiac killer from the stamps he used to send anonymous letters in the 1960s and 1970s?

Yes. Usable DNA can be obtained from dried saliva on stamps or on sealed portions of envelopes that are decades old, depending on how well such evidence has been preserved. Old cigarette butts are likewise good sources of DNA. Saliva is very rich in DNA because it contains sloughed lining cells from the inside of the mouth rich in DNA and is the reason that mouth swabs are becoming increasingly more utilized to obtain DNA samples. 99.9% of the cells in blood taken for DNA studies have no nuclear DNA because red cells have no nuclei; blood is drawn to get the nucleated white blood cells which are 1/1000 of the cells in the blood.

Since you were part of the JFK autopsy, I would like to know what your opinion of the "magic bullet" is.

I was the chief forensic pathologist for the Untied States House of Representatives Select Committee on Assassination in the late 1970s that re-investigated the deaths of President John F. Kennedy and Dr. Martin Luther King. There was no "magic" to the bullet that struck President Kennedy and then proceeded through Texas Gov. John Connally. Critics of the Warren Commission claimed it was magic because it had to have traveled in a loop to hit them both and because it was "pristine" after going through both bodies. Bullets do travel in straight lines and did so in this instance after Gov. Connolly had turned to his right to look at President Kennedy after he heard the first shot. The bullet itself appears "pristine" in photographs but is appropriately flattened when examined directly. (For a further explanation, see my book Unnatural Death, Confessions of a Medical Examiner.)

Is there a difference between being a defense witness or a witness for the prosecution?

No. The medical or scientific expert is not an advocate for either side but is an advocate for his/her science and should give the same testimony whether called to the witness stand by the prosecution or by the defense. It appears that as expert witnesses we always agree with the side that has hired us because we are not asked to testify if we disagree. But, even if we disagree, we have performed a valuable service by explaining to the consulting attorneys the scientific weaknesses and strengths of their case. If we disagree with the prosecutors' theory, they might consider that their theory of the case is wrong, and if we disagree with the defense attorneys' theory, they may be motivated to plea bargaining - most murder cases are resolved by plea bargaining.
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